4 climate zones of Pakistan

What are the 4 Climate Zones of Pakistan?

Pakistan, a diverse country with varied geography, hosts a range of climate zones, each with its own unique characteristics and influences. Understanding the distinct climate zones is crucial for comprehending Pakistan's weather patterns, agricultural practices, and environmental challenges.

 Tropical Climate Zone

Pakistan's southern regions, including Karachi and parts of Sindh and Balochistan, fall under the tropical climate zone. Here, temperatures remain high throughout the year, with minimal seasonal variations. The climate is characterized by hot and humid conditions, making it conducive to the cultivation of crops like cotton and sugarcane.

 Arid Climate Zone

The arid climate zone encompasses vast swathes of Balochistan and parts of Punjab. With low precipitation and high evaporation rates, this region experiences extreme dryness and temperature fluctuations. Desert landscapes dominate the area, and agriculture relies heavily on irrigation from rivers like the Indus.

Temperate Climate Zone

Northern Pakistan, including areas like Islamabad, Lahore, and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, features a temperate climate zone. Here, the weather is moderate, with distinct seasons including hot summers and cold winters. The region's fertile plains and valleys support a variety of crops, including wheat, maize, and fruits.

Alpine Climate Zone

The mountainous regions of northern Pakistan, including the Himalayas and Karakoram ranges, exhibit an alpine climate. Characterized by cold temperatures and heavy snowfall in winters, these areas are home to diverse ecosystems and support tourism and mountaineering activities.

Factors Influencing Pakistan's Climate

Pakistan's climate is influenced by various factors, including its geographical location, proximity to the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, and the presence of mountain ranges. The country's diverse topography contributes to the formation of distinct climate zones, each shaped by its unique environmental conditions.

 Impact of Climate Zones on Agriculture

The different climate zones in Pakistan play a significant role in shaping agricultural practices and crop patterns. While the tropical regions are suitable for cash crops like cotton and rice, the temperate zones support the cultivation of wheat, barley, and vegetables. Irrigation infrastructure, including dams and canals, helps sustain agriculture in arid regions.

Climate Change and Pakistan

Pakistan faces growing challenges from climate change, including rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. These changes pose threats to agriculture, water resources, and public health, highlighting the urgent need for adaptation and mitigation measures.

Adaptation Strategies for Different Climate Zones

To address the impacts of climate change, Pakistan is implementing adaptation strategies tailored to each climate zone. These include water conservation measures, crop diversification, afforestation projects, and the promotion of renewable energy sources. Additionally, community-based initiatives aim to build resilience and enhance adaptive capacity at the local level.

Conclusion

Pakistan's diverse climate zones reflect the country's rich natural heritage and offer valuable insights into its environmental dynamics. By understanding and addressing the challenges posed by climate change, Pakistan can safeguard its ecosystems, support sustainable development, and enhance the resilience of its communities.

FAQs on Pakistan's Climate Zones

1. Are all regions of Pakistan affected by climate change?

    Climate change impacts vary across regions, but all parts of Pakistan are vulnerable to its effects, including changes in temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events.

2. How does climate change affect agriculture in Pakistan's arid regions?

     Climate change exacerbates water scarcity and soil degradation in arid regions, posing challenges to agricultural productivity and livelihoods.

3. What measures are being taken to address climate change in Pakistan's mountainous areas? 

   Pakistan is implementing initiatives to mitigate the impacts of climate change in mountainous regions, including reforestation, watershed management, and disaster risk reduction programs.

4. How does climate change impact Pakistan's coastal areas?

   Coastal areas face risks from sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and storm surges, threatening ecosystems, infrastructure, and coastal communities.

5. What role can individuals play in combating climate change in Pakistan?

   Individuals can contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts through sustainable lifestyle choices, promoting environmental awareness, and supporting community-based initiatives.

The Urgency of Global Climate Warming

Introduction:

Global climate warming, also commonly referred to as global warming, is a phenomenon that has garnered significant attention in recent decades. It refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases. This issue has far-reaching consequences for our planet's ecosystems, weather patterns, and overall sustainability.

The Science Behind Global Climate Warming:

The Earth's climate is influenced by a delicate balance of various factors, including solar radiation, greenhouse gases, and natural feedback loops. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) trap heat in the atmosphere, preventing it from escaping into space. While these gases are essential for maintaining a habitable temperature on Earth, human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased their concentrations.

The Role of Human Activities:

The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for energy production, is a major contributor to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, deforestation reduces the number of trees that can absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. As a result, the balance of natural processes that regulate the Earth's climate is disrupted, leading to a warming effect known as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Consequences of Global Climate Warming:

1. **Rising Temperatures:** The most apparent consequence of global climate warming is the overall rise in temperatures worldwide. This leads to more frequent and intense heatwaves, adversely affecting ecosystems, agriculture, and human health.

2. **Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels:** Warming temperatures contribute to the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, causing sea levels to rise. This poses a threat to coastal communities, low-lying islands, and vulnerable ecosystems.https://www.dreamstime.com/image-water-awareness-sustainability-capturing-essence-compelling-visual-narrative-inspires-image301736208#res52999010

3. **Extreme Weather Events:** Global climate warming is linked to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and wildfires. These events have severe implications for communities, economies, and ecosystems.

4. **Disruption of Ecosystems:** Many plant and animal species are sensitive to changes in temperature and climate conditions. Global warming can lead to shifts in ecosystems, affecting the distribution and behavior of species, and in some cases, leading to the extinction of certain plants and animals.

Mitigation and Adaptation:

Addressing global climate warming requires both mitigation and adaptation strategies. Mitigation involves reducing or preventing the emission of greenhouse gases, while adaptation involves making adjustments to social, economic, and environmental practices to minimize the damage caused by climate change.

1. **Transition to Renewable Energy:** Shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, is crucial in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

2. **Afforestation and Reforestation:** Planting trees and preserving existing forests play a vital role in absorbing CO2 and maintaining biodiversity.

3. **International Cooperation:** Climate change is a global issue that requires collaborative efforts among nations. Agreements like the Paris Agreement aim to unite countries in their commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global temperature rise.

Conclusion:

Global climate warming is a pressing challenge that demands immediate and sustained action. The consequences of inaction are severe, affecting not only the environment but also human societies and economies. By adopting sustainable practices, investing in renewable energy, and fostering international cooperation, we can work together to mitigate the impacts of global climate warming and create a more resilient and sustainable future.

What Is Social Security?

 “Social Security” is the time period used for the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program in the United States, that's run with the aid of the Social Security Administration (SSA), a federal agency. Though it's far pleasantly recognized for retirement blessings, it additionally provides survivor advantages and profits for employees who grow to be disabled.
As of September 2022, greater than 70, four million Americans had been accumulating benefits. Let’s study how Social Security works and what kind of money you may assume to get from it.

As of September 2022, greater than 70, four million Americans had been accumulating benefits. Let’s study how Social Security works and what kind of money you may assume to get from it.

KEY TAKEAWAYS;

• Social Security is a federal program in the U.S. That offers retirement benefits and incapacity earnings to certified humans and their spouses, children, and survivors.
• To qualify for Social Security retirement benefits, workers must be at a minimum of sixty-two years old and feature paid into the system for 10 years or greater.
• Workers who wait to gather Social Security, as much as age 70, will acquire higher monthly benefits.
• The quantity of these advantages is calculated based totally on your average listed month-to-month profits (AIME) throughout your 35 highest-earning years and, thus, varies from person to man or woman.
• People who can’t paint because of a disability, and surviving spouses and youngsters, may also be eligible for advantages if they meet sure requirements.

How Social Security Works;

Social Security is an insurance application. Workers pay into the program, typically via payroll withholding wherein they paint. Self-employed workers pay Social Security taxes after they document their federal tax returns.

Workers can earn as many as 4 credits every year. In 2022, for each $1,510 earned, one credit is granted until $6,040, or 4 credits were finished. In 2023, it is going to be $1,640 to $6,560. That cash is going into  Social Security agree with finances—the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund (OASI) for retirees and the Disability Insurance Trust Fund (DI) for incapacity beneficiaries—wherein it's far used to pay advantages to humans presently eligible for them. The money that isn't spent stays within the agreement finances.

A board of trustees oversees the economic operation of the two Social Security trust finances. Four of the six members are the secretaries of the departments of Treasury, Labor, and Health and Human Services, and the Commissioner of Social Security. The last two contributors are public representatives appointed by the president and shown via the Senate.

Medicare, the federal medical health insurance application for Americans sixty-five and older and a few human beings with disabilities, is also supported through payroll withholding. That cash goes into a 3rd consider fund, that's controlled with the aid of the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS).

Types and Amounts of Social Security Benefits;

Social Security offers benefits to retirees, their survivors, and employees who become disabled.

Retirement Benefits:

Workers who have paid into the Social Security gadget for at least 10 years end up eligible for early retirement benefits at age sixty-two. Waiting till your “complete retirement age (FRA)”—between 66 and sixty-seven relying on whilst you had been born—outcomes in better month-to-month advantages. If you delay accumulating retirement benefits to age 70, then you'll receive even greater, but blessings don’t grow if you wait longer than that.

Spouses can also claim benefits primarily based on either their personal earnings file or their spouse’s. A divorced partner who is not presently married can receive blessings primarily based on an ex-partner’s earnings record if the wedding lasted at least 10 years. Children of retirees also can get hold of blessings until they flip 18 (longer if the kid is disabled or a pupil). The cutoff is 16 in case you are concerned for a kid who isn't always your very own.

How Much Can I Get in Retirement Benefits?

How plenty you could get on your Social Security retirement advantage relies upon your average listed monthly income (AIME) at some point in your 35 highest-earning years. Because of this, amounts will vary considerably among retirees. The average monthly benefit as of September 2022 became $1,547.87 ($18,574.Forty four annually).

Your annual amount will increase by way of 8% for each year you put off gathering advantages, beginning at age sixty-two and stopping at 70. The gain, for this reason, varies relying upon when you begin taking it. In 2022, the most monthly gain for people aged sixty-two is $2,364 ($28,368 annually), whilst for humans aged 70, it is $four,194 ($50,328 yearly). In addition, there is an every-year price-of-dwelling adjustment made to Social Security blessings, to maintain tempo with inflation. In 2022, your benefit will boom by 5.9%, and in 2023, it's going to boom by eight.7%.

Social Security affords a unique minimum gain for long-time period low earners first enacted in 1972. You should have earnings for at least eleven years to qualify for it. In 2022, the special month-to-month minimal advantage is $ forty-five. 50 ($546 annually). It will increase for every additional yr of low-earnings paintings, topping out at $950.Eighty ($11,409.60) for human beings who've labored for 30 years. In 2023, the unique month-to-month minimal gain is $49.Forty ($592.Eighty yearly), topping out at $1,033.50 ($12,402) for people who've labored for 30 years.

Disability Benefits;

People who can’t paint because of a bodily or intellectual disability this is expected to last for a year or more—or result in death—can be eligible for Social Security incapacity blessings (SSDI). To qualify, you normally have to meet certain profits exams. Family members of disabled workers also can be eligible.

How Much Can I Get in Disability Benefits?

As of September 2022, a bit under 9 million Americans had been accumulating SSDI. The average monthly gain became $1,232.11 ($14,785.32 yearly). For disabled employees, the monthly average was $1,362.58 ($ 16,350.Ninety-six yearly). Spouses of disabled people obtained an average of $376.85 monthly ($four,522.22 yearly), and kids of disabled workers got $429.Ninety-six monthly ($5,159.52 annually).

Survivor Benefits;

The spouse and children of a deceased worker may be eligible for survivor advantages based on the employee’s income document. That includes surviving spouses who're 60 or older, or 50 or older and disabled, provided they have got no longer remarried. A surviving spouse who is worrying about a kid who's more youthful than 16 or disabled may be eligible for these blessings too.

For youngsters to get hold of benefits, they must typically be younger than 18 or disabled. Under positive occasions, a stepchild, a grandchild, a step-grandchild, or a followed toddler may qualify for benefits.

Parents aged sixty-two or older who have been structured upon a deceased worker for at least half of in their profits can also be capable of acquiring benefits. On some occasions, surviving spouses and minor youngsters are also entitled to a one-time price of $255 after an eligible employee’s loss of life.

How Much Can I Get in Survivor Benefits?

Approximately five.85 million humans were accumulating survivor advantages as of September 2022. The average monthly advantage became $1,330.77 ($15,969.24 annually). Survivor benefits destroy down into five classes. Average payments were:

• Children of deceased workers: $980.37 monthly ($11,764.Forty four yearly)
• Widowed father and mother: $1,137.Sixteen month-to-month ($13,645.Ninety two yearly)
• Nondisabled widow(er)s: $1,565.41 month-to-month ($18,784.Ninety two annually)
• Disabled widow(er)s: $820.46 month-to-month ($nine,845.Fifty two annually)
• Parents of deceased workers: $1,406.Ninety eight monthly ($sixteen,883.Seventy six yearly)

The History of Social Security;

The Social Security gadget in the U.S. Came into the lifestyle on Aug. 14, 1935, while President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act into regulation. The first monthly blessings tests became payable on Jan. 1, 1940, and the primary man or woman to accumulate one become Ida M. Fuller, a retired legal secretary in Vermont. She takes a look at become for $22.Fifty-four.

The machine and its policies have evolved over many years considering. Today, Social Security is one of the biggest government applications in the globe, paying out masses of billions of dollars each year.

176 million

The range of folks who paid Social Security taxes in 2021 is 176 million.

The Future of Social Security;

With the getting older of the U.S. Populace, some observers have raised concerns approximately the viability of a machine wherein fewer energetic people could be helping greater numbers of retirees.

In its 2022 file, the Social Security Board of Trustees forecasts that the retirement fund (OASI Trust Fund) reserves will become depleted in 2034, and then tax sales will be sufficient to pay seventy seven% of scheduled benefits. The trustees additionally projected reserves of the Hospital Insurance (HI) Trust Fund, which budgets Medicare Part A, will be depleted in 2028, at which point application earnings will cowl ninety% of the advantages.

If those predictions maintain, Congress will need to find approaches to fill the space, which would possibly imply better taxes on employees, decrease advantages, higher age requirements for retirees, or some mixture of those elements.

What Benefits Does Social Security Provide?

Social Security affords advantages for certified retirees, disabled humans, and their spouses, children, and survivors. The advantage amount is primarily based on your earnings records, among different elements.

What Is the Difference Between Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI)?

Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is separate software from Social Security. It gives monthly coins distributions to elderly or disabled people with little to no income to assist them to meet their primary desires. You may be eligible for both Social Security benefits and SSI.

What Is the Full Retirement Age (FRA)?

The full retirement age (FRA) is the age you must reach to be eligible to obtain full retirement blessings from Social Security. Your FRA varies relying on when you were born. It is sixty-six years and months for the ones born in 1955 and progressively will increase to sixty-seven for the ones born in 1960 and after.

The Bottom Line;

The enactment of Social Security in 1935 become one of the signature achievements of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s administration, and the program remains a cornerstone of most Americans’ retirement, serving more than 65.6 million people. Benefit amounts vary depending on earnings and years of employment. In addition to retired people, their surviving spouses, youngsters, and dad and mom, and disabled workers and their family contributors, can also be eligible to acquire blessings.

With the common retired worker advantage amounting to about $19,000 yearly, the program shouldn’t be depended on as your sole source of retirement profits. It’s crucial to complement it with other retirement alternatives, including a man or woman retirement account (IRA) or an enterprise-backed plan, together with a 401(k) or 403(b), in addition to different savings and investments.

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Caspian Sea

 The Caspian Sea: is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea.[2][3][4] An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia, south of the fertile plains of Southern Russia in Eastern Europe, and north of the mountainous Iranian Plateau of Western Asia. It covers 143,550 sq mi (372,000 km2) (excluding the highly saline lagoon of Garabogazköl to its east) and a volume of 78,200 km3 (19,000 cubic mi).[5] It has a salinity of approximately 1.2% (12 g/L), about a third of the salinity of average seawater. It is bounded by Kazakhstan to the northeast, Russia to the northwest, Azerbaijan to the southwest, Iran to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southeast.

The sea stretches nearly 1,200 km (750 mi) from north to south, with an average width of 320 km (200 mi). Its gross coverage is 386,400 km2 (149,200 sq mi) and the surface is about 27 m (89 ft) below sea level. Its main freshwater inflow, Europe's longest river, the Volga, enters at the shallow north end. Two deep basins form its central and southern zones. These lead to horizontal differences in temperature, salinity, and ecology. The seabed in the south reaches 1,023 m (3,356 ft) below sea level, which is the second-lowest natural non-oceanic depression on Earth after Lake Baikal (−1,180 m or −3,870 ft). Written accounts from the ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its salinity and large size.

The Caspian Sea is home to a wide range of species and is known for its caviar and oil industries. Pollution from the oil industry and dams on rivers draining into it have harmed its ecology.

The lake's name stems from Caspi, an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia.^[6] Strabo (died circa AD 24) wrote that "to the country of the Albanians (Caucasus Albania not to be confused with the country of Albania) belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared".^[7] Moreover, the Caspian Gates, part of Iran's Tehran province, may evince such a people migrated to the south. The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with this common name for the sea. The traditional and medieval Arabic name for the sea was Bahr(sea) Xazar but in recent centuries common and standard name in the Arabic language is Baḥr Qazvin Arabized from Caspian.^[8] In modern Russian: Каспи́йское мо́ре, Kaspiyskoye more.^[9]

Some Turkic ethnic groups refer to it with the Caspi(an) descriptor; in Kazakh, it is called Каспий теңізі, Kaspiy teñizi, Kyrgyz: Каспий деңизи, romanized: Kaspiy deñizi, Uzbek: Kaspiy dengizi. Others refer to it as the Khazar sea: Turkmen: Hazar deňizi; Azerbaijani: Xəzər dənizi, Turkish: Hazar denizi. In all these the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries.^{[citation needed]}

In Iran, the lake is referred to as the Mazandaran Sea (Persian: دریای مازندران), after the historic Mazandaran Province at its southern shores.^[10]

Old Russian sources use the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of Khwarezmia.^[11]

Among Greeks and Persians in classical antiquity, it was the Hyrcanian ocean.^[12]

Renaissance European maps labeled it as the Abbacuch Sea (Oronce Fine's 1531 world map), Mar de Bachu (Ortellius' 1570 map), or Mar de Sala (Mercator's 1569 map).

It was also sometimes called the Kumyk Sea^[13] and Tarki Sea^[14] (derived from the name of the Kumyks and their historical capital Tarki).

Physical characteristics

Formation;

The Caspian Sea, like the Black Sea, is a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea. Its seafloor is, therefore, a standard oceanic basalt and not a continental granite body. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to tectonic uplift and a fall in sea level. During warm and dry climatic periods, the landlocked sea almost dried up, depositing evaporitic sediments like halite that were covered by wind-blown deposits and were sealed off as an evaporite sink when cool, wet climates refilled the basin. (Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean.) Due to the current inflow of fresh water in the north, the Caspian Sea water is almost fresh in its northern portions, getting more brackish toward the south. It is most saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow.^[15] Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one-third that of Earth's oceans. The Garabogazköl embayment, which dried up when water flow from the main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored, routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10.^[16]

Geography;

 The area around the Caspian Sea. The Yellow area indicates the (approximate) drainage area.

The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world by area and accounts for 40 to 44% of the total lacustrine waters of the world.^[17], and covers a size larger than Germany. The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. The Caspian is divided into three distinct physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian.^[18] The Northern–Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold, which runs through Chechen Island and Cape Tiub-Karagan. The Middle–Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold, a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant,^[19] that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuli.^[20] The Garabogazköl Bay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian.

Differences between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf,^[21] and is very shallow; it accounts for less than 1% of the total water volume with an average depth of only 5–6 m (16–20 ft). The sea noticeably drops off towards the Middle Caspian, where the average depth is 190 m (620 ft).^[20] The Southern Caspian is the deepest, with oceanic depths of over 1,000 m (3,300 ft), greatly exceeding the depth of other regional seas, such as the Persian Gulf. The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33% and 66% of the total water volume, respectively.^[18] The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter, and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well.^[22]

Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian, the Volga River being the largest. A second affluent, the Ural River, flows in from the north, and the Kura River from the west. In the past, the Amu Darya (Oxus) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now-desiccated riverbed called the Uzboy River, as did the Syr Darya farther north. The Caspian has several small islands, primarily located in the north with a collective land area of roughly 2,000 km² (770 sq mi). Adjacent to the North Caspian is the Caspian Depression, a low-lying region 27 m (89 ft) below sea level. The Central Asian steppes stretch across the northeast coast, while the Caucasus mountains hug the western shore. The biomes to both the north and east are characterized by cold, continental deserts. Conversely, the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and mountain ranges; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of biodiversity in the region.^[16]

The Caspian Sea has numerous islands near the coasts, but none in the deeper parts of the sea. Ogurja Ada is the largest island. The island is 37 km (23 mi) long, with gazelles roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the Tyuleniy Archipelago, an Important Bird Area (IBA).

Climate;

The climate of the Caspian Sea is variable, with the cold desert climate (BWk), cold semi-arid climate (BSk), and humid continental climate (Dsa, Dfa) being present in the northern portions of the Caspian Sea, while the Mediterranean climate (Csa) and humid subtropical climate (Cfa) are present in the southern portions of the Caspian Sea.

Hydrology;

 The Caspian Sea near Aktau, Mangystau Region, Kazakhstan

The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and lakes. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, although it is not freshwater: the 1.2% salinity classes it with brackish water bodies.

It contains about 3.5 times as much water, by volume, as all five of North America's Great Lakes combined. The Volga River (about 80% of the inflow) and the Ural River discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it has no natural outflow other than by evaporation. Thus the Caspian ecosystem is a closed basin, with its own sea level history that is independent of the eustatic level of the world's oceans.

The sea level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians^[who?] claim that a medieval rising of the Caspian, perhaps caused by the Amu Darya changing its inflow to the Caspian from the 13th century to the 16th century, caused the coastal towns of Khazaria, such as Atil, to flood. In 2004, the water level was 28 m (92 ft) below sea level.

Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic, thousands of kilometers to the northwest.^[23]

The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of 3 m (10 ft) from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of 3 m (10 ft) from 1977 until 1995. Since then smaller oscillations have taken place.^[24]

A study by the Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences estimated that the sea level was dropping by more than six centimeters per year due to increased evaporation due to rising temperatures caused by climate change.^[25]

Environmental degradation;

The Volga River, the longest river in Europe, drains 20% of the European land area and is the source of 80% of the Caspian's inflow. Heavy development in its lower reaches has caused numerous unregulated releases of chemical and biological pollutants. The UN Environment Programme warns that the Caspian "suffers from an enormous burden of pollution from oil extraction and refining, offshore oil fields, radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and huge volumes of untreated sewage and industrial waste introduced mainly by the Volga River".^[25]

The magnitude of fossil fuel extraction and transport activity in the Caspian also poses a risk to the environment. The island of Vulf off Baku, for example, has suffered ecological damage as a result of the petrochemical industry; this has significantly decreased the number of species of marine birds in the area. Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines under the sea further increase the potential threat to the environment.^[26]

The high concentration of mud volcanoes under the Caspian Sea was thought to be the cause of a fire that broke out 75 kilometers from Baku on July 5, 2021. The State oil company of Azerbaijan SOCAR said preliminary information indicated it was a mud volcano that spewed both mud and flammable gas.^[27]

It is assumed that during the 21st century, the level will decrease by 9–18 m (30–60 ft) due to the acceleration of evaporation due to global warming and the process of desertification.^[28]

On October 23, 2021, Kazakhstan President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev signed the Protocol for the Protection of the Caspian Sea against Pollution from Land-based Sources to ensure better protection for the biodiversity of the Caspian Sea.^[29]

Flora and fauna

Flora;

Iran's northern Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests are maintained by moisture captured from the Caspian Sea by the Alborz Mountain Range.

The rising level of the Caspian Sea between 1994 and 1996 reduced the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation. This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies.^[30][31]

Many rare and endemic plant species of Russia are associated with the tidal areas of the Volga delta and riparian forests of the Samur River delta. The shoreline is also a unique refuge for plants adapted to the loose sands of the Central Asian Deserts. The principal limiting factors to the successful establishment of plant species are hydrological imbalances within the surrounding deltas, water pollution, and various land reclamation activities. The water level change within the Caspian Sea is an indirect reason for which plants may not get established.

These affect aquatic plants of the Volga Delta, such as Aldrovanda vesiculosa and the native Nelumbo caspica. About 11 plant species are found in the Samur River delta, including the unique liana forests that date back to the Tertiary period.^[32]

Since 2019 UNESCO has admitted the lush Hyrcanian forests of Mazandaran, Iran as a World Heritage Site under category (ix). ^[33]

Fana;

Most tadpole gobies (Benthophilus) are found only in the Caspian Sea basin.^[34]

The Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica), although found in neighboring areas, is a wholly freshwater species. The zebra mussel is native to the Caspian and the Black Sea basins but has become an invasive species elsewhere when introduced. The area has given its name to several species, including the Caspian gull and the Caspian tern. The Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is the only aquatic mammal endemic to the Caspian Sea, being one of the very few seal species that live in inland waters, but it is different from those inhabiting freshwaters due to the hydrological environment of the sea. A century ago the Caspian was home to more than one million seals. Today, fewer than 10% remain.^[25]

Archeological studies of Gobustan Rock Art have identified what may be dolphins^[35] and porpoises,^[36][37] or a-certain species of beaked whale,^[38] and what may be a whaling scene indicates large baleen whales^[39] likely being present in the Caspian Sea at least until it ceased being a part of the ocean system or until the Quaternary or much more recent periods such as the last glacial period or antiquity.^[40] Although the rock art on Kichikdash Mountain is assumed to be of a dolphin^[41] or of a beaked whale,^[38] it might instead represent the famous beluga sturgeon due to its size (430 cm in length), but fossil records suggest certain ancestors of modern dolphins and whales, such as Macrokentriodon morani (bottlenose dolphins) and Balaenoptera sibbaldina (blue whales) were presumably larger than their present descendants. From the same artworks, auks, like Brunnich's Guillemot could also have been in the sea as well, and these petroglyphs suggest marine inflow between the current Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean or the North Sea or the Black Sea.^[41] This is supported by the existence of current endemic, oceanic species such as lagoon cockles which were genetically identified to originate in the Caspian/Black Seas regions.^[39]

The sea's basin (including associated waters such as rivers) has 160 native species and subspecies of fish in more than 60 genera.^[34] About 62% of the species and subspecies are endemic, as are 4–6 genera (depending on taxonomic treatment). The lake proper has 115 natives, including 73 endemics (63.5%).^[34] Among the more than 50 genera in the lake proper, 3–4 are endemic: Anatirostrum, Caspiomyzon, Chasar (often included in Ponticola), and Hyrcanogobius.^[34] By far the most numerous families in the lake proper are gobies (35 species and subspecies), cyprinids (32), and clupeids (22). Two particularly rich genera are Alosa with 18 endemic species/subspecies and Benthophilus with 16 endemic species.^[34] Other examples of endemics are four species of Clupeonella, Gobio volgensis, two Rutilus, three Sabanejewia, Stenodus leucichthys, two Salmo, two Mesogobius, and three Neogobius.^[34] Most non-endemic natives are either shared with the Black Sea basin or widespread Palearctic species such as crucian carp, Prussian carp, common carp, common bream, common bleak, asp, white bream, sun break, common dace, common roach, common rudd, European chub, Sichel tench, European weatherfish, wels catfish, northern pike, burbot, European perch and zander.^[34] Almost 30 non-indigenous, introduced fish species have been reported from the Caspian Sea, but only a few have become established.^[34]

Six sturgeon species, the Russian, bastard, Persian, sterlet, starry, and beluga, are native to the Caspian Sea.^[34] The last of these is arguably the largest freshwater fish in the world. The sturgeon yield roe (eggs) that are processed into caviar. Overfishing has depleted a number of historic fisheries.^[42] In recent years, overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that environmentalists advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. The high price of sturgeon caviar—more than 1,500 Azerbaijani manats^[25] (US$880 as of April 2019) per kilo—allows fishermen to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective.^[43] Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females.

Illustration of two Caspian tigers, extinct in the region since the 1970s.

Reptiles native to the region include the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca buxtoni) and Horsfield's tortoise.

• The Asiatic cheetah used to occur in the Trans-Caucasus and Central Asia but is today restricted to Iran.^[44][45]
• The Asiatic lion used to occur in the Trans-Caucasus, Iran, and possibly the southern part of Turkestan.^[44][45]
• The Caspian tiger used to occur in northern Iran, the Caucasus,, and Central Asia.^[44][45]
• The endangered Persian leopard is found in Iran, the Caucasus, and Central Asia.^[44][45]
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"Pakistan worst affected by climate change "

 Principal Professor of Agriculture University Faisalabad, local sub-campus Dr. Muhammad Sajid said;

                                  PAKISTAN was ranked first on the list of countries affected by climate change.

Talking to APP, he said that climate change was a recognized fact and it led to bring unseasonal rains and sometimes droughts in the country like in different parts of the world.

Following this, he said, crops ripened prematurely which affected the quality of grain. The grain shrank leading to an effect on farmers' per-acre production.

He said with the help of technology and free testing of soil, farmers could overcome weeds and crop pests.

He said more research was needed to retain good and timely crop production. He stressed adopting a good strategy to cope with the effects of climate change.

The devastating floods in Pakistan are a "wake-up call" to the world on the threats of climate change, experts have said.

 How Pakistan floods are linked to climate change

• Sindh province awaits more devastation.

  The record-breaking rain would devastate any country, not just poorer nations, one climate scientist has told BBC News.

The human impacts are clear - another  2,000 people were rescued from floodwaters on Friday, while ministers warn of food shortages after almost half the country's crops were washed away.

A sense of injustice is keenly felt in the country. Pakistan contributes less than 1% of the global greenhouse gases that warm our planet but its geography makes it extremely vulnerable to climate change.

 

One-third of Pakistan is underwater right now, which has exceeded every boundary, every norm we've seen in the past," Climate minister Sherry Rehman said this week.

Pakistan is located in a place on the globe that bears the brunt of two major weather systems. One can cause high temperatures and drought, like the heatwave in March, and the other brings monsoon rains.

The majority of Pakistan's population lives along the Indus river, which swells and can flood during monsoon rains.

The science linking climate change and more intense monsoons is quite simple. Global warming is making air and sea temperatures rise, leading to more evaporation. Warmer air can hold more moisture, making monsoon rainfall more intense.

Scientists predict that the average rainfall in the Indian summer monsoon season will increase due to climate change, explains Anja Katzenberger at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research.

But Pakistan has something else making it susceptible to climate change effects - its immense glaciers.

The northern region is sometimes referred to as part of the 'third pole' - it contains more glacial ice than anywhere in the world outside of the polar regions.

As the world warms, glacial ice is melting. Glaciers in Pakistan's Gilgit Baltistan and KPK regions are melting rapidly, creating more than 3,000 lakes, the UN Development Programme told BBC News. Around 33 of these are at risk of sudden bursting, which could unleash millions of cubic meters of water and debris, putting 7 million people at risk.

.Map and photos show the extent of Pakistan's floods

Pakistan's government and the UN are attempting to reduce the risks of these sudden outbursts of floods by installing early-warning systems and protective infrastructure.

In the past, poorer countries with weaker flood defenses or lower-quality housing have been less able to cope with extreme rainfall.

But climate impact scientist Fahad Saeed told BBC News that even a rich nation would be overwhelmed by the catastrophic flooding this summer.

"This is a different type of animal - the scale of the floods is so high and the rain is so extreme, that even very robust defenses would struggle," Dr. Saeed explains from Islamabad, Pakistan.

He points to the flooding in Germany and Belgium that killed dozens of people in 2021.

Pakistan received nearly 190% more rain than its 30-year average from June to August - reaching a total of 390.7mm.

He says that Pakistan's meteorological service did a "reasonable" job in warning people in advance about flooding. And the country does have some flood defenses but they could be improved, he says.

People with the smallest carbon footprints are suffering the most, Dr. Saeed says.

"The victims are living in mud homes with hardly any resources - they have contributed virtually nothing to climate change," he says.

The flooding has affected areas that don't normally see this type of rain, including southern regions of Sindh and Balochistan which are normally arid or semi-arid.

Yusuf Baluch, a 17-year-old climate activist from Balochistan, says that inequality in the country is making the problem worse. He remembers his own family home being washed away by flooding when he was six years old.

"People living in cities and from more privileged backgrounds are least affected by the flooding," he explains.

"People have the right to be angry. Companies are still extracting fossil fuels from Balochistan, but people there have just lost their homes and have no food or shelter," he says. He believes the government is failing to support communities there.

Dr. Saeed says the floods are "absolutely a wake-up call" to governments globally who promised to tackle climate change at successive UN climate conferences.

"All of this is happening when the world has warmed by 1.2C - any more warming than that is a death sentence for many people in Pakistan," he adds.

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